SELAMAT DATANG DI BLOG HMPBI STKIP TAPANULI SELATAN PADANGSIDIMPUAN
Counter Powered by  RedCounter

Thank you for your partisipation
 

Rabu, 13 Oktober 2010

Listen and Repeat

Part Of Speech

There are some basic knowledge for understanding of material learned grammar can be remembered easily, one of which is the part of speech
  
Part of speech is a linguistic category of words (or more precisely lexical items), which is generally defined by the syntactic or morphological behaviour of the lexical item in question. Common linguistic categories include noun and verb, among others. There are open word classes, which constantly acquire new members, and closed word classes, which acquire new members infrequently if at all. (Wikipedia)

The part Of Speech
  • Noun: any abstract or concrete entity
  • Pronoun: any substitute for a noun or noun phrase
  • Adjective: any qualifier of a noun
  • Verb: any action or state of being
  • Adverb: any qualifier of an adjective, verb, or other adverb
  • Preposition: any establisher of relation and syntactic context
  • Conjunction: any syntactic connector
  • Interjection: any emotional greeting (or "exclamation")
             Although these are the traditional eight English parts of speech, modern linguists have been able to classify English words into even more specific categories and sub-categories based on function.

            
The four main parts of speech in English, namely nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs, are labelled form classes as well. This is because prototypical members of each class share the ability to change their form by accepting derivational or inflectional morphemes. The term form is used as it refers literally to the similarities in shape of the word in its pronunciation and spelling for each part of speech.


              
Neither written nor spoken English generally marks words as belonging to one part of speech or another, as they tend to be understood in the context of the sentence. Words like neigh, break, outlaw, laser, microwave and telephone might all be either verb forms or nouns. Although -ly is a frequent adverb marker, not all adverbs end in -ly and not all words ending in -ly are adverbs (-wise is another common adverb marker).

               
For instance, tomorrow, fast, very can all be adverbs, while early, friendly, ugly are all adjectives (though early can also function as an adverb).
In certain circumstances, even words with primarily grammatical functions can be used as verbs or nouns, as in "We must look to the hows and not just the whys" or "Miranda was to-ing and fro-ing and not paying attention".



How To be a Good teacher (Part 1)

This is a unique discussion for all of you the candidate of teacher. When you are finish your study from STKIP Tapsel and become a teacher. Many questions will arise in you ...  


1.  I will be ready to become a teacher? 

2.  Did i deserve to be  a good teacher?
3.  Whether I have become a good teacher?And many more questions that come up to you, as educators, students prospective successor to the nation.
So.. This session , I will Helps you to open your ways become a good teacher.

Introductory Questions.

How to be a good teacher?

What makes a good teacher?
How should the teacher talk to the students?
How should the teacher give instructions?
Who should talk in the class?
What are the best kinds of lessons?



 What makes a Good teacher?

 Rate the following teacher qualities in order of importance?
    A. They are good looking.
    B. They are entertaining.
    C. They can control the class.
    D. They give interesting classes.
    E. They know their students.
    F. They can keep control.
    G. They prepare well.
    H. They know their subject.

What is a best teacher?
When I was at school, the best teacher was…
The best teacher I ever met is …
The best English teacher is …
I think the best English teacher should be…
I want to be an English who …

How should teachers talk
to students?
 A. A teacher should speak very slowly and clearly to their foreign-language students. 
 B. Teachers should always use well-constructed sentences when they speak to their students. 
C. Teachers should speak to their students like parents talk to their young children. 
D.Teachers should speak normally to their students-as if they were talking to their own friends. 
E. Teachers should only say things to students which the students will understand totally.
How should teachers give instructions?  
1. Now I want you to work in pairs…yes(gesturing)…that’s right…you two…you  
   two…you two. Good. Now listen carefully. I want you to read this text(holding up the book
   and pointing to it) on page 26 and answer the questions…OK?
2. OK, this is the deal-and I hope you really enjoy this ‘cos I spent much time planning it,
  you know? I thought you could probably solve access this grammar problem yourselves,
 by looking it up in your book in groups. OK?
3. (Sitting at desk) Open your books on page 26. What the answer to the question 1?
4. (Hold up large picture)Right, we’re going to do something a bit different now. Now ask
    me questions about the picture(Pointing to the picture)…questions with
   “what”…Anybody? Yes, Tim, please!  
Two general rules for giving instructions:
         (1)asap   (2)logical     
How should the new teachers give instructions? 
         (1) Before giving instructions, asking the followings:
          a.What is the information I am trying to convey?
          b. What must the students know if they are to complete  the activity successfully?
          c. Which information do they need first?
          d. Which should come next? 
 (2)While giving instructions
 Check whether you are understood or not? 
Who should talk in class?
 1. In class, I take up most of the time, reading, organizing and doing 
      explanations, but the students seem to have difficulty to understand.
  2. In class, in order to make the students do  what I said, I have to use  Chinese regularly.
  3. In class, my students occupy most of the class time, they have more
         than 3 chances to practice(say) what they are required openly.
  4. I usually offer some minutes to make the students to talk, but they
         can not  utter a word, let along to say a sentence or a paragraph.
  5. It all depends what kinds of lessons I am conducting. 

What are the best kinds of lessons?

Please complete the followings:
 1. When I was at school, the best lessons were…
 2. The best lesson I have ever observed was ….
 3. I think the best kind lessons that I can give are …
Score the followings:
 1.Good Ts keep the students guessing what they are going to do next.
 2. The worst kind of T is the one who does the same thing every class.
 3. Good Ts always look smart.
 4. Good Ts are always interesting.

              ( This explanation is based on understanding the admin of the material presented     by Miss. EFRIDA HANNUM, S.Pd on the TEAFL Lesson ) 
Note :
Link referenci : Helium
 






Sabtu, 09 Oktober 2010

Pidgin And Creole Language

  a. PIDGIN 
  1.  Pidgin is nobody's native language; may arise when two speakers of different languages with no common     language try to have a makeshift conversation. Lexicon usually comes from one language, structure often from the other. Because of colonialism, slavery etc. the prestige of Pidgin languages is very low. Many pidgins are `contact vernaculars', may only exist for one speech event.

  2.  "At first a pidgin language has no native speakers, and is used just for doing business with others with whom one shares the pidgin language and no other. In time, most pidgin languages disappear, as the pidgin-speaking community develops, and one of its established languages becomes widely known and takes over the role of the pidgin as the lingua franca, or language of choice of those who do not share a native language."
(Grover Hudson, Essential Introductory Linguistics. Blackwell, 2000)

* Structure

   Structure (grammar) of Pidgin(s)/Creole(s) is reduced:

  1. Has limited vocabulary, simplified grammar (e.g. no PNG, no gender, no plural marking, no agreement (e.g. `one man come; two man come; three man go yesterday')
  2. Often has aspect instead of tense; marked with particles instead of affixation.
  3. Very little redundency; as simple as can be. 
2. CREOLE
     1.Creole (orig. person of European descent born and raised in a tropical colony) is a language that was originally a pidgin but has become nativized, i.e. a community of speakers claims it as their first language. Next used to designate the language(s) of people of Caribbean and African descent in colonial and ex-colonial countries (Jamaica, Haiti, Mauritius, Réunion, Hawaii, Pitcairn, etc.)

     2."A creole comes into being when children are born into a pidgin-speaking environment and acquire the pidgin as a first language. What we know about the history and origins of existing creoles suggests that this may happen at any stage in the development of a pidgin."
(Mark Sebba, Contact Languages: Pidgins and Creoles. Palgrave Macmillan, 1997)

Minggu, 19 September 2010

Situs Pelajaran

Dear everyone,

This will be very helpful for everyone who is difficult to find some english lessons. I have collected these links since 4 years ago. I enthusiastically found and tried to collect these sites to help me improve my English.
Sometimes it’s so difficult to find some articles or English structures if we do not know how to find through exact words. These EL Lessons space will help you find the difficulty.
I do not just collect English Lessons but I try to collect Forum, free articles sites as well. English Lessons such as Grammar, Reading, Basic Reading, Reading Comprehension, Writing, Listening, Phonetic, Syntax, Semantic, TOEFL Preparation, have been available in these links. You can also find some online Dictionaries such as English – Indonesia or vice versa, English – German, English – French, and so on. Now you can enjoy learning English here. Learn everything you want as long as it’s available for you.
Just make use of your time, thank you very much.
Regards,
Doni

Only English Grammar Exercises
http://wwwnew.towson.edu/ows/indexexercises.htm
http://www.better-english.com/exerciselist.html
http://perso.wanadoo.es/autoenglish/freeexercises.htm
http://www.smic.be/SMIC5022/exercisesgrammar.htm
http://www.nonstopenglish.com/allexercises/
http://www.englishlearner.com/tests/test.html
http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/exercises_list/alle_grammar.htm
http://a4esl.org/q/j/
http://englishonline.sites.uol.com.br/english/advanced.htm
http://cla.univ-fcomte.fr/english/listen_index.htm
http://www.english-grammar-lessons.com/
http://www.english-test.net/esl/english-grammar-test.html
http://depts.gallaudet.edu/englishworks/exercises/main/grammar.html
http://wwwedu.ge.ch/cptic/prospective/projets/anglais/exercises/welcome.html#gram4
http://www.english-4u.de/grammar_exercises.htm
http://www.englishmedialab.com/grammar.html
http://www.rong-chang.com/ex/contents.htm
http://www.eflnet.com/grammar/index.php
http://www.learn4good.com/languages/spec_english_toefl.htm (TOEFL Exercises)
http://odl.vwv.at/english/odlres/res8/Grammar/grammar.htm
http://www.clearbluerecords.com/esl/
http://www.learnenglish.be/learneng.htm
http://www.projectx2002.org/interactive_grammar.htm
http://www3.telus.net/janis-esl/grammar.html
http://www.parapal-online.co.uk/general.htm
http://genkienglish.net/ (English Games)
Online Dictionaries
http://www.inbahasa.com/main/
http://www.kamus.web.id/
http://www.orisinil.com/kamus.php
http://www.kamus.net/
http://www.sederet.com/translate.php
http://www.kamus-online.com/
http://kanji.inn.bppt.go.id/
http://www.jot.de/kamus/
http://delayota.or.id/kamus/dutch.php
http://bahtera.org/kateglo/
Online English Pronunciation
http://ead.univ-angers.fr/~menan/cerel/english/phonetics/am_brit.htm
http://ead.univ-angers.fr/~menan/cerel/english/phonetics/diphthongs.htm
http://ead.univ-angers.fr/~menan/cerel/english/phonetics/triphthongs.htm
http://ead.univ-angers.fr/~menan/cerel/english.htm
http://ead.univ-angers.fr/~menan/cerel/english/phonetics/english_phonetics.htm
TOEFL Preparation
http://www.testmagic.com/Knowledge_Base/TOEFL/Structure/
http://www.english-test.net/toefl/index.html
Learn and Explore more about English here
http://elc.polyu.edu.hk/cill/default4.htm
http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/elc/studyzone/(Index)
http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/elc/studyzone/410/index.htm(Must be learnt)

http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/elc/studyzone/330/grammar/index.htm (Must be learnt)

http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/learnit/
http://www.grammarstation.com/index.htm
http://www.learnenglish.org.uk/grammar/definitions/index.html
http://www.learnenglish.org.uk/grammar/archive/apostrophes01.html
http://www.translationdirectory.com/articles.htm(Articles on English Grammar)
http://www.usingenglish.com/(English Test and Articles)

http://www.translationdirectory.com/(Articles of Translation)
http://www.bartleby.com/cambridge/(History of English and American Literature)

http://www.dailygrammar.com/archive.shtml
http://depts.gallaudet.edu/englishworks/grammar/main/index.htm
http://www.zozanga.com/
http://newark.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Writing/contents.html
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/internet-grammar/home.htm
http://www.usingenglish.com/
http://grove.ufl.edu/~klilj/pron/
http://eslbears.homestead.com/Blank.html(Listening Comprehension)
http://www.umich.edu/~umichjlp/kana.html(Listen to The Hiragana & Katakana
http://www.umich.edu/~umichjlp/index.html (Sounds of Japanese)
http://www.love-poems.me.uk/index.htm (Good English Poem)
http://www.poemsource.com/(English Poem)

http://www.public-speaking-training.co.uk/Article%201.html(Public Speaking)

http://www.public-speaking.org/public-speaking-articles.htm(Public Speaking)

http://www.pm.gov.au/news/speeches/index.cfm (Examples Of Speech)
http://www.moonstar.com/~acpjr/Blackboard/Common/Stories/1ListOfShortStories.html(Classic Short Stories)
http://www.tech-sol.net/humor/stories.htm (Funny Short Stories)
http://www.writers-free-reference.com/funny/index.html (Funny Short Stories)

http://www.esl-lab.com/(Good Listening Execises)
http://www.agendaweb.org/listening/elem_interm.html(Elementary Listening)
http://eslus.com/eslcenter.htm(English Exercises)
http://www.eslbears.homestead.com/Links_Page.html

http://www.lancs.ac.uk/socs/luds/rules.htm
http://www.actdu.org.au/docs/tips_for_debaters.html
http://members.aol.com/basfawlty/tips.htm
http://www.debating.net/lds/database_menu.htm(The Basics of Debating)
http://www.debate-central.org/
http://www.debate-central.org/ubbthreads/showflat.php?Cat=0&Number=23010&Main=16792(Debater’s Forum)
http://www.geocities.com/liacybercampus/(STBA LIA Aricles)

http://universitas.ptkpt.net/
http://www.bjnewlife.org/english/printedbook/(Free Christian eBook)
Phonetic Sound Link
http://www.uiowa.edu/~acadtech/phonetics/# (best voice)
http://www.antimoon.com/how/pronunc-soundsipa.htm
http://digilander.libero.it/mgraziatundo/english_phonetic_alphabet.htm
http://pronunciation.englishclub.com/word-stress.htm (learn the stress of the word)
http://www.grammarerrors.com/pronunciation.html#aesthetic
http://eleaston.com/materials.html (Listening )
http://www.key2speak.com/voices.html (download the software to hear it)
http://www.elc.polyu.edu.hk/cill/pronunci.htm#Listen to a word (best to listen the word what we are typing)
Translation
http://translation.paralink.com/translation.asp
http://www.toggletext.com —— Indonesia-English online
http://www.systranbox.com/systran/box
http://ets.freetranslation.com/
http://www.khobragade.com/indotranslation.html (Only Indonesia-English)
http://www.epals.com/translation/translation.e
My Link
http://www.cforc.com/kjv/
http://www.audio-bible.com/bible/bible.html (audio)
http://www.o-bible.com/kjv.html
http://www.focusenglish.com/
http://www.bolton.ac.uk/bissto/basicskills/english/index.htm (English Improving)
http://www.worldlingo.com/en/products_services/worldlingo_translator.html
http://www.frenchlinx.lotelinx.vic.edu.au/english/french_lang/interactive_french.htm
http://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/french/lj/menu.shtml (Best)
http://french.about.com/library/pronunciation/bl-audiodico-a.htm (Audio Dic)
http://www.learnfrenchlanguage.com/
http://www.guitartips.com.au/
http://www.activebass.com/ (Lessons for Basses)
http://www.wholenote.com/ (Lessons for Guitarist)

http://www.mysongbook.com/
http://www.glittergraphics.us/ (Best Grapichs Word)
http://drama.eserver.org/
http://dmoz.org/Arts/Literature/Drama/20th_Century/
http://www.brocku.ca/english/courses/4F70/
http://www.library.utoronto.ca/utel/glossary/headerindex.html
http://englishclub.8m.com/ukus1.htm
http://international.ouc.bc.ca/pronunciation (Best Pronunciation )
http://www.xztc.edu.cn/english/english/listening/jindu.htm
http://www.eslcafe.com/
http://www.readingsoft.com/ (Speed Reading)
http://www.my.homewithgod.com/heavenlymidis/praise.html#top
http://www.audiotreasure.com/mp3/Music/
http://www.123greetings.com/
http://www.lab.brown.edu/tdl/diversitykitpdfs/dk_language.pdf
http://eserver.org/
http://www.lib.udel.edu/ud/spec/exhibits/treasures/history/hist.html
http://www.beaugrande.bizland.com/StoryDiscAnal.htm
http://ogden.basic-english.org/verbs.html (about the basic of grammar)
http://gshin.chonnam.ac.kr/class/intro_eng/007syn2.htm (complete)
http://www.churchillhouse.com/cgi-bin/chframe.cgi?url=http://www.churchillhouse.com/en-courses.html (English Test)
My Link
>> THE BEST SITE FOR GRAMMAR <<

www.eslgold.com


http://eleaston.com/


www.better-english.com


http://www.better-english.com/


http://www.englishclub.com/


http://www.easyenglish.com


http://www.edufind.com/


www.english-zone.com


http://www.buzzin.net/


http://www.sciencedaily.com

>> ONLINE TRANSLATING <<

http://translation.paralink.com/translation.asp


http://www.toggletext.com/kataku_trial.php

>> ART Link/Sastra INGGRIS <<


http://www.ilstu.edu/~larusse/portfolio.htm


http://www.public.asu.edu/~jlockard/blogger.html

BRITISH LITERATURE :

http://www.lang.nagoya-u.ac.jp/~matsuoka/EngLit.html

AUSTRALIAN LITERATURE :

http://www.middlemiss.org/lit/lit.html


DRAMA 1 & 2 :

http://eserver.org/drama/

POETRY :

http://www.ibiblio.org/ipa/
(Listen now)
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS :

http://www.ugr.es/~ftsaez/lexco.pdf

EDITORSHIP :

http://www.acsu.buffalo.edu/~peradott/trophos.pdf

ENGLISH MORPHOLOGY :

http://theses.mit.edu/Dienst/UI/2.0/Describe/0018.mit.theses/1974-41

PROSE 1 & 2 :

http://www.coyotenation.com/prose.html


http://www.necessaryprose.com/index.html

ENGLISH PHONOLOGY :

http://web.utk.edu/~pflipsen/555-conv-view-phono.PDF

ENGLISH SEMANTICS :

www.shunsley.eril.net/armoore/lang/semantics.htm

ENGLISH SYNTAX:

http://gshin.chonnam.ac.kr/class/intro_eng/004phonetic.htm

HISTORY OF ENGLISH DRAMA AND LITERATURE :

www.bartleby.com/cambridge

HISTORY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE :

http://www.wordorigins.org/histeng.htm#norma

PHONETICS :

http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/ipachart.html

LISTENING COMPREHENSION :

http://www.esl-lab.com/index.htm


http://english.baladre.org/sedaviwebfront/grammarindex.htm#hadbetter


http://www.englishatoxford.com/demo_ethical/popup.html

PRAGMATICS :

http://www.shunsley.eril.net/armoore/lang/pragmatics.pdf


http://exchanges.state.gov/education/engteaching/pragmatics/speech.pdf


http://www.colorado.edu/linguistics/jurafsky/prag.pdf


http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~kdk/201/spring02/slides/pragmatics-4up.pdf


http://www-personal.umich.edu/~jasoncs/semantics-pragmatics.pdf


http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~jumbo101/pragmatics.pdf


http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/PUB/WPL/98papers/carston.pdf


http://www.blutner.de/lexprag.pdf

WOMEN LITERATURE:

http://www.westafricareview.com/war/vol2.1/kumah.html


http://eserver.org/


http://www.lib.udel.edu/ud/spec/exhibits/treasures/history/hist.html


http://www.beaugrande.bizland.com/StoryDiscAnal.htm


http://ogden.basic-english.org/verbs.html


http://gshin.chonnam.ac.kr/class/intro_eng/007syn2.htm

SLANG :

http://www.uncp.edu/home/canada/work/allam/1914-/language/slang.htm


http://www.intranet.csupomona.edu/~jasanders/slang/index.html

LESSON ART :

http://www.ling.ed.ac.uk/linguist/


http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Crete/5555/phono.htm#diphthongs

READING :

http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/elc/studyzone/330/reading/

PHONETIC :

http://www.uiowa.edu/~acadtech/phonetics/


http://www.antimoon.com/how/pronunc-soundsipa.htm


http://digilander.libero.it/mgraziatundo/english_phonetic_alphabet.htm


http://pronunciation.englishclub.com/word-stress.htm


http://www.grammarerrors.com/pronunciation.html#aesthetic


http://eleaston.com/materials.html


http://www.key2speak.com/voices.html


BEST SOUND OF THE SENTENCES AND WORD :


http://www.elc.polyu.edu.hk/cill/pronunci.htm


>> THE BEST SITE FOR GRAMMAR :) IT’S COOL <<


http://www.eslgold.com/


http://eleaston.com/


http://www.better-english.com/


http://www.better-english.com/grammar.htm


http://www.englishclub.com/


http://www.easyenglish.com/


http://www.edufind.com/


http://www.english-zone.com/


http://www.englishdaily626.com/


http://esl.about.com/cs/pronunciation/


http://www.buzzin.net/


http://www.sciencedaily.com/


>> THE BEST SITE FOR GRAMMAR TEST :) IT’S COOL <<


http://www.english-test.net/


http://www.nonstopenglish.com/exercise.asp?id=3&t=5822


>> ONLINE TRANSLATING <<


http://translation.paralink.com/translation.asp


http://www.toggletext.com/kataku_trial.php


http://www.systranbox.com/systran/box


http://ets.freetranslation.com/


http://www.khobragade.com/indotranslation.html


http://www.epals.com/translation/translation.e


>> The Other LESSON <

http://www.mapzones.com/world/north_america/usa/lifeindex.php


http://www.lonelyplanet.com/destinations/north_america/usa/culture.htm


http://pacificislandtravel.nl/north_america/culture.asp


http://www.cultureusa.com/culture/history.html

LIFESTYLE OF USA :

http://pacificislandtravel.nl/north_america/livestyle.asp


http://dspace.dial.pipex.com/town/way/ylr38/movies/lifestyle.htm

FOOD OF USA :

http://freespace.virgin.net/john.cletheroe/usa_can/restaur/ffoodint.htm


http://4tenderheart.com/America.html

LINGUISTICS :

http://www3.telus.net/linguisticsissues/

PHONETICS FOR PRONUNCIATION :

http://international.ouc.bc.ca/pronunciation
(Best)

http://www.spokenenglish.org/


http://www.fonetiks.org/

NOVEL :

http://www.cliffsnotes.com/



http://www.cliffsnotes.com/WileyCDA/LitNote/id-158.html

INTERACTIVE FRENCH :
http://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/french/lj/menu.shtml (Best)
http://french.about.com/library/pronunciation/bl-audiodico-a.htm (Audio Dic)
http://www.learnfrenchlanguage.com/
Speak Other Language :
http://www.bbc.co.uk



Selasa, 31 Agustus 2010

Keluarga Besar Himpunan Mahasiswa Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris STKIP- HMPBI Tapsel-Padangsidimpuan Mengucapkan Selamat Hari Raya Idul Fitri 1431 H. Semoga Menajdi Hamba Allah yang Kembali Suci Lahir dan Batin.

Senin, 19 Juli 2010

Logo Resmi HMPBI

Selasa, 13 Juli 2010

Formulir Pendataan Mahasiswa pandidikan Bahasa Inggris STKIP Tapsel Padangsidimpuan

Assalamu alaikum warahmatullahi wabarokatuh...
Salam Mahasiswa...
Merasa mahasiswa/i STKIP jurusan bahasa inggris?
Isikan data anda disini



Senin, 04 Januari 2010

Linguistics

Linguistics is the scientific[1][2] study of natural language.[3][4] Linguistics encompasses a number of sub-fields. An important topical division is between the study of language structure (grammar) and the study of meaning (semantics and pragmatics). Grammar encompasses morphology (the formation and composition of words), syntax (the rules that determine how words combine into phrases and sentences) and phonology (the study of sound systems and abstract sound units).

Phonetics is a related branch of linguistics concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds (phones), non-speech sounds, and how they are produced and perceived. Other sub-disciplines of linguistics include the following: evolutionary linguistics, which considers the origins of language; historical linguistics, which explores language change; sociolinguistics, which looks at the relation between linguistic variation and social structures; psycholinguistics, which explores the representation and functioning of language in the mind; neurolinguistics, which looks at the representation of language in the brain; language acquisition, which considers how children acquire their first language and how children and adults acquire and learn their second and subsequent languages; and discourse analysis, which is concerned with the structure of texts and conversations, and pragmatics with how meaning is transmitted based on a combination of linguistic competence, non-linguistic knowledge, and the context of the speech act.

Linguistics is narrowly defined as the scientific approach to the study of language, but language can, of course, be approached from a variety of directions, and a number of other intellectual disciplines are relevant to it and influence its study. Semiotics, for example, is a related field concerned with the general study of signs and symbols both in language and outside of it. Literary theorists study the use of language in artistic literature. Linguistics additionally draws on work from such diverse fields as psychology, speech-language pathology, informatics, computer science, philosophy, biology, human anatomy, neuroscience, sociology, anthropology, and acoustics.

Within the field, linguist is used to describe someone who either studies the field or uses linguistic methodologies to study groups of languages or particular languages. Outside the field, this term is commonly used to refer to people who speak many languages or have a great vocabulary.
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Names for the discipline
* 2 Fundamental concerns and divisions
* 3 Variation and universality
* 4 Structures
* 5 Selected sub-fields
o 5.1 Historical linguistics
o 5.2 Semiotics
o 5.3 Descriptive linguistics and language documentation
o 5.4 Applied linguistics
* 6 Description and prescription
* 7 Speech and writing
* 8 History
* 9 Schools of study
o 9.1 Generative grammar
o 9.2 Cognitive linguistics
* 10 See also
* 11 References
* 12 External links

Names for the discipline

Before the twentieth century, the term "philology", first attested in 1716,[5] was commonly used to refer to the science of language, which was then predominantly historical in focus.[6] Since Ferdinand de Saussure's insistence on the importance of synchronic analysis, however, this focus has shifted[7] and the term "philology" is now generally used for the "study of a language's grammar, history and literary tradition," especially in the United States,[8] where it was never as popular as it was elsewhere (in the sense of the "science of language").[5]

Although the term "linguist" in the sense of "a student of language" dates from 1641,[9] the term "linguistics" is first attested in 1847.[9] It is now the usual academic term in English for the scientific study of language.
Fundamental concerns and divisions

Linguistics concerns itself with describing and explaining the nature of human language. Relevant to this are the questions of what is universal to language, how language can vary, and how human beings come to know languages. All humans (setting aside extremely pathological cases) achieve competence in whatever language is spoken (or signed, in the case of signed languages) around them when growing up, with apparently little need for explicit conscious instruction. While non-humans acquire their own communication systems, they do not acquire human language in this way (although many non-human animals can learn to respond to language, or can even be trained to use it to a degree).[10] Therefore, linguists assume that the ability to acquire and use language is an innate, biologically-based potential of modern human beings, similar to the ability to walk. There is no consensus, however, as to the extent of this innate potential, or its domain-specificity (the degree to which such innate abilities are specific to language), with some theorists claiming that there is a very large set of highly abstract and specific binary settings coded into the human brain, while others claim that the ability to learn language is a product of general human cognition. It is, however, generally agreed that there are no strong genetic differences underlying the differences between languages: an individual will acquire whatever language(s) he or she is exposed to as a child, regardless of parentage or ethnic origin.[11]

Linguistic structures are pairings of meaning and form; such pairings are known as Saussurean signs. In this sense, form may consist of sound patterns, movements of the hands, written symbols, and so on. There are many sub-fields concerned with particular aspects of linguistic structure, ranging from those focused primarily on form to those focused primarily on meaning:

* Phonetics, the study of the physical properties of speech (or signed) production and perception
* Phonology, the study of sounds (or signs) as discrete, abstract elements in the speaker's mind that distinguish meaning
* Morphology, the study of internal structures of words and how they can be modified
* Syntax, the study of how words combine to form grammatical sentences
* Semantics, the study of the meaning of words (lexical semantics) and fixed word combinations (phraseology), and how these combine to form the meanings of sentences
* Pragmatics, the study of how utterances are used in communicative acts, and the role played by context and non-linguistic knowledge in the transmission of meaning
* Discourse analysis, the analysis of language use in texts (spoken, written, or signed)

Many linguists would agree that these divisions overlap considerably, and the independent significance of each of these areas is not universally acknowledged. Regardless of any particular linguist's position, each area has core concepts that foster significant scholarly inquiry and research.

Alongside these structurally-motivated domains of study are other fields of linguistics, distinguished by the kinds of non-linguistic factors that they consider:

* Applied linguistics, the study of language-related issues applied in everyday life, notably language policies, planning, and education. (Constructed language fits under Applied linguistics.)
* Biolinguistics, the study of natural as well as human-taught communication systems in animals, compared to human language.
* Clinical linguistics, the application of linguistic theory to the field of Speech-Language Pathology.
* Computational linguistics, the study of computational implementations of linguistic structures.
* Developmental linguistics, the study of the development of linguistic ability in individuals, particularly the acquisition of language in childhood.
* Evolutionary linguistics, the study of the origin and subsequent development of language by the human species.
* Historical linguistics or diachronic linguistics, the study of language change over time.
* Language geography, the study of the geographical distribution of languages and linguistic features.
* Linguistic typology, the study of the common properties of diverse unrelated languages, properties that may, given sufficient attestation, be assumed to be innate to human language capacity.
* Neurolinguistics, the study of the structures in the human brain that underlie grammar and communication.
* Psycholinguistics, the study of the cognitive processes and representations underlying language use.
* Sociolinguistics, the study of variation in language and its relationship with social factors.
* Stylistics, the study of linguistic factors that place a discourse in context.

The related discipline of semiotics investigates the relationship between signs and what they signify. From the perspective of semiotics, language can be seen as a sign or symbol, with the world as its representation.[citation needed]
Variation and universality

Much modern linguistic research, particularly within the paradigm of generative grammar, has concerned itself with trying to account for differences between languages of the world. This has worked on the assumption that if human linguistic ability is narrowly constrained by human biology, then all languages must share certain fundamental properties.

In generativist theory, the collection of fundamental properties all languages share are referred to as universal grammar (UG). The specific characteristics of this universal grammar are a much debated topic. Typologists and non-generativist linguists usually refer simply to language universals, or universals of language.

Similarities between languages can have a number of different origins. In the simplest case, universal properties may be due to universal aspects of human experience. For example, all humans experience water, and all human languages have a word for water. Other similarities may be due to common descent: the Latin language spoken by the Ancient Romans developed into Spanish in Spain and Italian in Italy; similarities between Spanish and Italian are thus in many cases due to both being descended from Latin. In other cases, contact between languages — particularly where many speakers are bilingual — can lead to much borrowing of structures, as well as words. Similarity may also, of course, be due to coincidence. English much and Spanish mucho are not descended from the same form or borrowed from one language to the other;[12] nor is the similarity due to innate linguistic knowledge (see False cognate).

Arguments in favor of language universals have also come from documented cases of sign languages (such as Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language) developing in communities of congenitally deaf people, independently of spoken language. The properties of these sign languages conform generally to many of the properties of spoken languages. Other known and suspected sign language isolates include Kata Kolok, Nicaraguan Sign Language, and Providence Island Sign Language.
Structures
Ferdinand de Saussure

It has been perceived that languages tend to be organized around grammatical categories such as noun and verb, nominative and accusative, or present and past, though, importantly, not exclusively so. The grammar of a language is organized around such fundamental categories, though many languages express the relationships between words and syntax in other discrete ways (cf. some Bantu languages for noun/verb relations, ergative-absolutive systems for case relations, several Native American languages for tense/aspect relations).

In addition to making substantial use of discrete categories, language has the important property that it organizes elements into recursive structures; this allows, for example, a noun phrase to contain another noun phrase (as in "the chimpanzee's lips") or a clause to contain a clause (as in "I think that it's raining"). Though recursion in grammar was implicitly recognized much earlier (for example by Jespersen), the importance of this aspect of language became more popular after the 1957 publication of Noam Chomsky's book Syntactic Structures,[13] which presented a formal grammar of a fragment of English. Prior to this, the most detailed descriptions of linguistic systems were of phonological or morphological systems.

Chomsky used a context-free grammar augmented with transformations. Since then, following the trend of Chomskyan linguistics, context-free grammars have been written for substantial fragments of various languages (for example GPSG, for English). It has been demonstrated, however, that human languages (most notably Dutch and Swiss German) include cross-serial dependencies, which cannot be handled adequately by context-free grammars.[14]
Selected sub-fields
Historical linguistics
Main article: Historical Linguistics

Historical linguistics studies the history and evolution of languages through the comparative method. Often the aim of historical linguistics is to classify languages in language families descending from a common ancestor. This evolves comparison of elements in different languages to detect possible cognates in order to be able to reconstruct how different languages have changed over time. This also involves the study of etymology, the study of the history of single words. Historical linguistics is also called "diachronic linguistics" and is opposed to "synchronic linguistics" that study languages in a given moment in time without regarding its previous stages.In universities in the United States, the historic perspective is often out of fashion. Historical linguistics was among the first linguistic disciplines to emerge and was the most widely practiced form of linguistics in the late 19th century. The shift in focus to a synchronic perspective started with Saussure and became predominant in western linguistics with Noam Chomsky's emphasis on the study of the synchronic and universal aspects of language.
Semiotics
Main article: Semiotics

Semiotics is the study of sign processes (semiosis), or signification and communication, signs and symbols, both individually and grouped into sign systems, including the study of how meaning is constructed and understood. Semioticians often do not restrict themselves to linguistic communication when studying the use of signs but extend the meaning of "sign" to cover all kinds of cultural symbols. Nonetheless semiotic disciplines closely related to linguistics are literary studies, discourse analysis, text linguistics, and philosophy of language.
Descriptive linguistics and language documentation
Main article: Descriptive linguistics

Since the inception of the discipline of linguistics linguists have been concerned with describing and documenting languages previously unknown to science. Starting with Franz Boas in the early 1900s descriptive linguistics became the main strand within American linguistics until the rise of formal structural linguistics in the mid 20th century. The rise of American descriptive linguistics was caused by the concern with describing the languages of indigenous peoples that were (and are) rapidly moving towards extinction. The ethnographic focus of the original Boasian type of descriptive linguistics occasioned the development of disciplines such as Sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, and linguistic anthropology, disciplines that investigate the relations between language, culture and society.

The emphasis on linguistic description and documentation has since become more important outside of North America as well, as the documentation of rapidly dying indigenous languages has become a primary focus in many of the worlds' linguistics programs. Language description is a work intensive endeavour usually requiring years of field work for the linguist to learn a language sufficiently well to write a reference grammar of it. The further task of language documentation requires the linguist to collect a preferably large corpus of texts and recordings of sound and video in the language, and to arrange for its storage in accessible formats in open repositories where it may be of the best use for further research by other researchers.[15]
Applied linguistics
Main article: Applied linguistics

Linguists are largely concerned with finding and describing the generalities and varieties both within particular languages and among all language. Applied linguistics takes the result of those findings and "applies" them to other areas. The term "applied linguistics" is often used to refer to the use of linguistic research in language teaching only[citation needed], but results of linguistic research are used in many other areas as well, such as lexicography and translation. "Applied linguistics" has been argued to be something of a misnomer[who?], since applied linguists focus on making sense of and engineering solutions for real-world linguistic problems, not simply "applying" existing technical knowledge from linguistics; moreover, they commonly apply technical knowledge from multiple sources, such as sociology (e.g. conversation analysis) and anthropology.

Today, computers are widely used in many areas of applied linguistics. Speech synthesis and speech recognition use phonetic and phonemic knowledge to provide voice interfaces to computers. Applications of computational linguistics in machine translation, computer-assisted translation, and natural language processing are areas of applied linguistics which have come to the forefront. Their influence has had an effect on theories of syntax and semantics, as modeling syntactic and semantic theories on computers constraints.

Linguistic analysis is a subdiscipline of applied linguistics used by many governments to verify the claimed nationality of people seeking asylum who do not hold the necessary documentation to prove their claim.[16] This often takes the form of an interview by personnel in an immigration department. Depending on the country, this interview is conducted in either the asylum seeker's native language through an interpreter, or in an international lingua franca like English.[16] Australia uses the former method, while Germany employs the latter; the Netherlands uses either method depending on the languages involved.[16] Tape recordings of the interview then undergo language analysis, which can be done by either private contractors or within a department of the government. In this analysis, linguistic features of the asylum seeker are used by analysts to make a determination about the speaker's nationality. The reported findings of the linguistic analysis can play a critical role in the government's decision on the refugee status of the asylum seeker.[16]
Description and prescription

Main articles: Descriptive linguistics, Linguistic prescription

Linguistics is descriptive; linguists describe and explain features of language without making subjective judgments on whether a particular feature is "right" or "wrong". This is analogous to practice in other sciences: a zoologist studies the animal kingdom without making subjective judgments on whether a particular animal is better or worse than another.

Prescription, on the other hand, is an attempt to promote particular linguistic usages over others, often favouring a particular dialect or "acrolect". This may have the aim of establishing a linguistic standard, which can aid communication over large geographical areas. It may also, however, be an attempt by speakers of one language or dialect to exert influence over speakers of other languages or dialects (see Linguistic imperialism). An extreme version of prescriptivism can be found among censors, who attempt to eradicate words and structures which they consider to be destructive to society.
Speech and writing

Most contemporary linguists work under the assumption that spoken (or signed) language is more fundamental than written language. This is because:

* Speech appears to be universal to all human beings capable of producing and hearing it, while there have been many cultures and speech communities that lack written communication;
* Speech evolved before human beings invented writing;
* People learn to speak and process spoken languages more easily and much earlier than writing;

Linguists nonetheless agree that the study of written language can be worthwhile and valuable. For research that relies on corpus linguistics and computational linguistics, written language is often much more convenient for processing large amounts of linguistic data. Large corpora of spoken language are difficult to create and hard to find, and are typically transcribed and written. Additionally, linguists have turned to text-based discourse occurring in various formats of computer-mediated communication as a viable site for linguistic inquiry.

The study of writing systems themselves is in any case considered a branch of linguistics.
History
Main article: History of linguistics

Some of the earliest linguistic activities can be recalled from Iron Age India with the analysis of Sanskrit. The Pratishakhyas (from ca. the 8th century BC) constitute as it were a proto-linguistic ad hoc collection of observations about mutations to a given corpus particular to a given Vedic school. Systematic study of these texts gives rise to the Vedanga discipline of Vyakarana, the earliest surviving account of which is the work of Pānini (c. 520 – 460 BC), who, however, looks back on what are probably several generations of grammarians, whose opinions he occasionally refers to. Pānini formulates close to 4,000 rules which together form a compact generative grammar of Sanskrit. Inherent in his analytic approach are the concepts of the phoneme, the morpheme and the root. Due to its focus on brevity, his grammar has a highly unintuitive structure, reminiscent of contemporary "machine language" (as opposed to "human readable" programming languages).

Indian linguistics maintained a high level for several centuries; Patanjali in the 2nd century BC still actively criticizes Panini. In the later centuries BC, however, Panini's grammar came to be seen as prescriptive, and commentators came to be fully dependent on it. Bhartrihari (c. 450 – 510) theorized the act of speech as being made up of four stages: first, conceptualization of an idea, second, its verbalization and sequencing (articulation) and third, delivery of speech into atmospheric air, the interpretation of speech by the listener, the interpreter.

Western linguistics begins in Classical Antiquity with grammatical speculation such as Plato's Cratylus. The first important advancement of the Greeks was the creation of the alphabet. As a result of the introduction of writing, poetry such as the Homeric poems became written and several editions were created and commented, forming the basis of philology and critic. The sophists and Socrates introduced dialectics as a new text genre. Aristotle defined the logic of speech and the argument. Furthermore Aristotle works on rhetoric and poetics were of utmost importance for the understating of tragedy, poetry, public discussions etc. as text genres.

One of the greatest of the Greek grammarians was Apollonius Dyscolus.[17] Apollonius wrote more than thirty treatises on questions of syntax, semantics, morphology, prosody, orthography, dialectology, and more. In the 4th c., Aelius Donatus compiled the Latin grammar Ars Grammatica that was to be the defining school text through the Middle Ages.[18] In De vulgari eloquentia ("On the Eloquence of Vernacular"), Dante Alighieri expanded the scope of linguistic enquiry from the traditional languages of antiquity to include the language of the day.[citation needed]

In the Middle East, the Persian linguist Sibawayh made a detailed and professional description of Arabic in 760, in his monumental work, Al-kitab fi al-nahw (الكتاب في النحو, The Book on Grammar), bringing many linguistic aspects of language to light. In his book he distinguished phonetics from phonology.[citation needed]

Sir William Jones noted that Sanskrit shared many common features with classical Latin and Greek, notably verb roots and grammatical structures, such as the case system. This led to the theory that all languages sprung from a common source and to the discovery of the Indo-European language family. He began the study of comparative linguistics, which would uncover more language families and branches.

In 19th century Europe the study of linguistics was largely from the perspective of philology (or historical linguistics). Some early-19th-century linguists were Jakob Grimm, who devised a principle of consonantal shifts in pronunciation – known as Grimm's Law – in 1822; Karl Verner, who formulated Verner's Law; August Schleicher, who created the "Stammbaumtheorie" ("family tree"); and Johannes Schmidt, who developed the "Wellentheorie" ("wave model") in 1872.

Ferdinand de Saussure was the founder of modern structural linguistics, with an emphasis on synchronic (i.e. non-historical) explanations for language form.

In North America, the structuralist tradition grew out of a combination of missionary linguistics (whose goal was to translate the bible) and Anthropology. While originally regarded as a sub-field of anthropology in the United States,[19][20] linguistics is now considered a separate scientific discipline in the US, Australia and much of Europe.

Edward Sapir, a leader in American structural linguistics, was one of the first who explored the relations between language studies and anthropology. His methodology had strong influence on all his successors. Noam Chomsky's formal model of language, transformational-generative grammar, developed under the influence of his teacher Zellig Harris, who was in turn strongly influenced by Leonard Bloomfield, has been the dominant model since the 1960s.

The structural linguistics period was largely superseded in North America by generative grammar in the 1950s and 60s. This paradigm views language as a mental object, and emphasizes the role of the formal modeling of universal and language specific rules. Noam Chomsky remains an important but controversial linguistic figure. Generative grammar gave rise to such frameworks such as Transformational grammar, Generative Semantics, Relational Grammar, Generalized Phrase-structure Grammar, Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar (HPSG) and Lexical Functional Grammar (LFG). Other linguists working in Optimality Theory state generalizations in terms of violable constraints that interact with each other, and abandon the traditional rule-based formalism first pioneered by early work in generativist linguistics.

Functionalist linguists working in functional grammar and Cognitive Linguistics tend to stress the non-autonomy of linguistic knowledge and the non-universality of linguistic structures, thus differing significantly from the formal approaches.
Schools of study

There are a wide variety of approaches to linguistic study. These can be loosely divided (although not without controversy) into formalist and functionalist approaches. Formalist approaches stress the importance of linguistic forms, and seek explanations for the structure of language from within the linguistic system itself. For example, the fact that language shows recursion might be attributed to recursive rules. Functionalist linguists by contrast view the structure of language as being driven by its function. For example, the fact that languages often put topical information first in the sentence, may be due to a communicative need to pair old information with new information in discourse.
Generative grammar
Main article: Generative grammar

During the last half of the twentieth century, following the work of Noam Chomsky, linguistics was dominated by the generativist school. While formulated by Chomsky in part as a way to explain how human beings acquire language and the biological constraints on this acquisition, in practice it has largely been concerned with giving formal accounts of specific phenomena in natural languages. Generative theory is modularist and formalist in character. Formal linguistics remains the dominant paradigm for studying linguistics,[21] though Chomsky's writings have also gathered much criticism.
Cognitive linguistics
Main article: Cognitive linguistics

In the 1970s and 1980s, a new school of thought known as cognitive linguistics emerged as a reaction to generativist theory. Led by theorists such as Ronald Langacker and George Lakoff, linguists working within the realm of cognitive linguistics posit that language is an emergent property of basic, general-purpose cognitive processes, though cognitive linguistics has also been the subject of much criticism.[22] In contrast to the generativist school of linguistics, cognitive linguistics is non-modularist and functionalist in character. Important developments in cognitive linguistics include cognitive grammar, frame semantics, and conceptual metaphor, all of which are based on the idea that form-function correspondences based on representations derived from embodied experience constitute the basic units of language.
See also
Main articles: Outline of linguistics and Index of linguistics articles

* Cognitive science
* Speech-Language Pathology
* History of linguistics
* International Linguistics Olympiad
* Linguistics Departments at Universities
* Summer schools for linguistics
* List of linguists

Branches and fields

Anthropological linguistics, Semiotics, Philology, Discourse, Structuralism, Post-structuralism, Cognitive linguistics, Cognitive science, Comparative linguistics, Sociolinguistics, Varieties, Developmental linguistics, Discourse Analysis, Descriptive linguistics, Ecolinguistics, Embodied cognition, Endangered languages.

History of linguistics, Historical linguistics, Intercultural competence, Lexicography/Lexicology, Linguistic typology, Evolutionary linguistics.

Articulatory phonology, Biolinguistics, Computational linguistics, Biosemiotics, Articulatory synthesis, Machine translation, Natural language processing, Speaker recognition (authentication), Speech processing, Speech recognition, Speech synthesis, Concept Mining, Corpus linguistics, Critical discourse analysis, Cryptanalysis, Decipherment, Asemic writing, Grammar Writing.

Forensic linguistics, Global language system, Glottometrics, Integrational linguistics, International Linguistic Olympiad, Language acquisition, Language attrition, Language engineering, Language geography, Metacommunicative competence, Microlinguistics, Natural Language Processing, Neurolinguistics, Orthography, Reading, Second language acquisition, Sociocultural linguistics, Stratificational linguistics, Text linguistics, Writing systems, Xenolinguistics.
References :
1. ^ Fromkin, Victoria; Bruce Hayes; Susan Curtiss, Anna Szabolcsi, Tim Stowell, Donca Steriade (2000). Linguistics: An Introduction to Linguistic Theory. Oxford: Blackwell. p. 3. ISBN 0631197117.
2. ^ Martinet, André (1960). Elements of General Linguistics. Tr. Elisabeth Palmer (Studies in General Linguistics, vol. i.). London: Faber. p. 15.
3. ^ Halliday, Michael A. K.; Jonathan Webster (2006). On Language and Linguistics. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. vii. ISBN 0826488242.
4. ^ Greenberg, Joseph (1948). "Linguistics and ethnology". Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 4: 140–47.
5. ^ a b Online Etymological Dictionary: philology
6. ^ McMahon, A. M. S. (1994), Understanding Language Change, Cambridge University Press, p. 19, ISBN 0-521-44665-1
7. ^ McMahon, A. M. S. (1994), Understanding Language Change, Cambridge University Press, p. 9, ISBN 0-521-44665-1
8. ^ A. Morpurgo Davies Hist. Linguistics (1998) 4 I. 22.
9. ^ a b Online Etymological Dictionary: linguist
10. ^ "Animal Language Article"
11. ^ Nevertheless, recent research suggests that even weak genetic biases in speakers may, over a number of generations, influence the evolution of particular languages, leading to a non-random distribution of certain linguistic features across the world. (Dediu, D. & Ladd, D.R. (2007). Linguistic tone is related to the population frequency of the adaptive haplogroups of two brain size genes, ASPM and Microcephalin, PNAS 104:10944-10949; summary available here)
12. ^ Much is from Middle English muchel, which is from Proto-Germanic *mekilaz[1], while mucho is from Latin multus[2].
13. ^ Chomsky, Noam. 1957. "Syntactic Structures". Mouton, The Hague
14. ^ Carl Vogel, Ulrike Hahn, Holly Branigan 1996, "Cross serial dependencies are not hard to process", Proceedings of the 16th conference on Computational linguistics - Volume 1
15. ^ Himmelman, Nikolaus Language documentation: What is it and what is it good for? in P. Gippert, Jost, Nikolaus P Himmelmann & Ulrike Mosel. (2006) Essentials of Language documentation. Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin & New York.
16. ^ a b c d Eades, Diana (2005). "Applied Linguistics and Language Analysis in Asylum Seeker Cases". Applied Linguistics 26 (4): 503–526. doi:10.1093/applin/ami021. http://songchau.googlepages.com/503.pdf.
17. ^ Apollonius Dyscolus
18. ^ linguistics : Greek and Roman antiquity -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia
19. ^ The "four fields" in American anthropology are cultural anthropology, physical anthropology, archeology and linguistics.
20. ^ Kemmer, Suzanne (2008). Biographical sketch of Franz Boas. Houston: Rice University. http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~kemmer/Found/boasbio.html.
21. ^ McMahon, A. M. S. (1994), Understanding Language Change, Cambridge University Press, p. 32, ISBN 0-521-44665-1
22. ^ See Newmeyer 1998, Language Form and Language Function (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press), and Culicover and Jackendoff 2005, Simpler Syntax (OUP)[3]
Copy from : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics